The History of Tanzania

                                                     

Introduction

Tanzania is among the largest countries in Africa; it covers a square area of 945,000 km. This area is similar to that of countries like France, Denmark, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland combined. Tanzania as a country was formed as a result of a merger of Tanganyika, which is the main land and the isles of Zanzibar (Pemba and Unguja) This merger was in the year 1964, giving birth to the present day Tanzania. Tanzania is a spectacularly beautiful country that is situated along the east coast of Africa at south of the equator between 11 degrees and 1degree. It is neighbored by Uganda and Kenya to the north, Zambia, Zaire, Burundi and Rwanda border it to the west and Malawi and Mozambique are its neighbors in the south. To the west, Tanzania is bordered by Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi and Zambia, and to its south are the countries of Malawi and Mozambique. It covers an area of 945,000 sq. km, the size of Denmark, France, the Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom combined. Generally, the geographical composition of Tanzania ranges from Great Rift Valley and volcanic highlands to the lowland areas. She boasts of having Africa’s tallest mountain within its territory. In terms of wildlife, Tanzania is the leading country in the world regarding the area it has allocated to wildlife. The wildlife areas and national parks consume approximately 25% of the county’s area. Some notable wildlife conservation areas include the Selous Game Reserve which covers 55,000 sq. km. these are among the few conspicuous and dominant characteristics evident in Tanzania.

History

The country bears rich history dating back to more than two million years ago. This history is enriched by the fact that fossils excavated by scientist in the country are remains of early man believed to have lived over two million years ago. This makes Tanzania to be ranked among the earliest areas that were inhabited on earth. Later on, Tanzania is believed have become home for the Khoisan and Cushitic speaking communities whose main economic activities were gathering wild fruits and roots and hunting wild animals. However, new inhabitants arrived and settled in the country around two thousand years ago from the western region of Africa following different migration patterns. These were the Bantus. These migrations continued up to the 18^th century when the Nilotic communities who were pastoralists moved into the country and settled. Tanzania’s industrial development began with the early inhabitants with steel being produced. A group of east African people called the Haya were later to invent a furnace that was used in manufacturing carbon steel. The furnace could be used to produce heat up to 1,802 degrees centigrade. This was way back, approximately two thousand years ago. Another tribe known to have been producing iron is the Pare and especially the clan of Shana from the tribe. Engaruka, an area situated at the Rift Valley is one of Tanzania’s major sites as pertains to archeology. The area has a lot of crop cultivation going on vis-à-vis irrigation. At it’s the coast, early visitors of east Africa like the rich merchants and travelers found rest and this led to the wide practice of Islam between the late eighth century AD and early ninth century AD. At the coastal strip was Seyyid Said who laid claims to the strip as the sultan of Zanzibar. He later moved the center of his administration to the city of Zanzibar in the year 1840, during which Zanzibar was a center for slave trade by the Arabs. Zanzibar bares the Tippu Tip, which is among well known slave trade centers in the world then hitting the 770,000 number of slaves from the coast.

Colonization and independence

The present Tanzania without Zanzibar was conquered by the imperial Germany in the late 17^th century. Other German territories to be conquered in the same time were Burundi and Rwanda. The three countries were then amalgamated into the German East Africa territory. The events of the First World War and League of Nations later realigned the Europeans’ control in east Africa. This led to the British coming in to take control over Tanzania after a series of wars and wrangles. However, in 1961, there was a peaceful end to the British rule and Tanzania got its independence through a Julius Nyerere led organization. This organization was then transformed to Tanganyika African National Union, and it took a political face. Nyerere and TANU aimed at gaining total sovereignty for the then Tanganyika, becoming a leading organization with a political outfit in a year’s time. In 1960, Nyerere was appointed the minister of Tanganyika, which was still being administered by the British. In the year 1967, Tanganyika became fully independent and Nyerere became the prime minister of Tanganyika but were tied by the Arusha Declaration, compelling the country to embrace socialism. This saw the nationalization of industries and banks. The Arab dynasty in Zanzibar was overthrown by a revolution in 1963, paving way for the merger of the mainland Tanganyika and islands of Zanzibar in 1964 on April 26^th to form the present day Tanzania. Tanzania’s economy was later hurt in the late 1970’s. However, from 1970 to 1975 when China financed the building of the 1,860 km railway from Tanzania’s Dar es Salaam all the way to Zambia, Tanzania’s economy started a rebuild. The GDP of Tanzania later grew and there were reduced poverty levels in the mid 80’s after the government began borrowing funds from the international organization, International Monetary Fund.

Geographical Diversity

A beautiful scenery and mixed geographical terrain is Tanzania’s identity. Mt. Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in Africa is found in country’s northeastern region alongside other mountains. Tanzania is sandwiched in between two prominent lakes. The largest lake in Africa, Lake Victoria lies in the north while the Africa’s deepest lake, Lake Tanganyika spreads to its west. Lake Tanganyika is prominent because it contains a queer type of fish that is unique to the lake. Lake Nyasa is found on the southwest part of Tanzania, completing the spectacular lake component of Tanzania. Further at the central part of the country lies a huge plateau characterized by large plains and fertile lands. The Zanzibar island lies offshore the eastern coast with the shores having high temperatures and high amounts of humidity. Wildlife is given frontline in Tanzania, with there being numerous parks and significantly large ecological areas. Tanzania is host to the well known national parks like Serengeti to the north, Mikumi to the south and Gombe to the west. It also plays host to Selous game reserve, Ngorongoro Crater and a famous chimpanzee site. Tanzania’s tourism is centered fundamentally on its geo wildlife. Other unique features in Tanzania include the Kalombo Falls, which is second in Africa in terms of height and which lies in the southwestern part of the country. This fall in Rukwa is one of the main tourist attraction sites in Tanzania. The Tanzanian government has also secluded Engaresero village for purposes of Maasai pastoralists. This has given the area a lot of biodiversity and uniqueness from other areas. Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano and Lake Natron spice up the geological diversity and ecological exemplary nature of Tanzania.

Climate

The climate in Tanzania is majorly tropical climate. There is a difference of temperature in the highlands with cold seasons recording up to 10 °C, while the temperatures are always 20 °C during hot seasons. In other areas generally, the temperature is usually above 20 °C. Hottest months are always November and December when the temperatures go to between 25 °C on the lows to 31 °C on the highs, while May and August are always the coolest months with temperatures going down to between 15 °C on the lows and 20 °C on the highs. Most mountainous regions do experience very low temperatures. In terms rainfall, Tanzania experiences two main rainfall periods in two different regions. For instance, in the southwest, western, central parts, rainfall occurs in a single period between the months of December to April. On the other side, the northern coast and north region experience rainfall in two different periods; between the months of October to December and then between March and May. Tanzania’s islands and coastal regions have explicitly the tropical climate, the regions with highlands being temperate while semi arid climate is experience at regions around the central plateau.

The People

The diverse presence of people having varied origin presents an interesting phenomenon to anyone visiting Tanzania. The country has been a mosaic of humankind since time in memorial, with a rich history of the origin of man.Various people from divergent origins have set foot in Tanzania ranging from the initial settlers of Bantu speakers whose origin can be traced from west and South Africa to the Shiraz Arabs with roots from Oman and Persia. Other people to set foot to Tanzania are those from Britain, Germans and the Portuguese. Since Tanzania achieved its independence from 1961, its population has been growing steadily and is currently sitting on a 26 million and above population. The country has a large number of ethnic groups which approximates to 120 ethnic groups of African origin. In the northwest region of the country dwells the largest of all the ethnic groups of Tanzania, the Sukuma. They inhabit a larger portion of Lake Victoria’s south part and are mixed farmers. The Sukuma people farm majorly in cotton and practice herding of cattle for a living. On the northern part of Tanzania lives the Hadzapi community. This community is majorly engaged in hunting of wild animals and gathering of wild fruits for their food. The highlands on the central part of the country are inhabited by the Iraqw who are always moving in an immobile posture and who are famously identified by their statuesque nature. The iraqw community practice farming and keep cattle for their economic needs. Northern part of Tanzania is dominated by the widely known Maasai community. The Maasai are a pastoral people and rare cattle for their livelihood. They value cattle as they believe cattle are a show of one’s status and an indicator of wealth. The Maasai culture is prominent and they share some of the national parks for pastoral reasons. They are conspicuous everywhere they are due to their garments that are blue and red in color and they do cover their bodies with ochre. The Chagga community lives on the northern part of Maasai steppe and majorly practices crop farming at the sides of the mountains. Their standard of life is fairly good as a result of the farming that they engage in. another community in Tanzania is the Hehe. They live in the highlands found in the district of Iringa and at the grasslands. The Hehe are known for their war related characteristics. Around Dodoma lives the Gogo community whose development has been marred due to inadequacy of water. Nyamwaezi community lives in the west. The name ‘Nyamwezi’ means people from the moon. This is because they live in the west. They were involved in long distance trading earlier but have since settled for crop farming. The nyamwezi were known to be very strong in the 19^th century due to their involvement in trade and political organization. The Ha community of Tanzania is an example of a community deeply rooted to mystical beliefs. They live in the solitude areas that are forested and bushy. They keep cattle which have long horns and do not put on clothes. Bark fibers and animal hides are used by the community to cover their bodies. The Ha community is usually talented in artistic expressions and is famously identified for their dances and colorful celebrations. In Tanzania there is a lot of harmony as a result of virtually everyone being able to speak the Swahili language apart from their motive language.

Culture

Tanzania has a blend of various cultures. The first aspect that displays their culture is their music. There is varied music. Tanzanians still value the traditional music grounded on African taste. Taarab, which is a type of music distinctively based on use of stringed instruments, is a value to the country. There is a modern type on hip hop like music which is commonly referred to as ‘bongo flava’ and which is widely accepted and enjoyed across the country. Tanzania has appreciated and famous singers of the taarab music genre. There is a type of music distinct to Africa called the ‘rumba’ which most Tanzanians refer to as ‘muziki wa dansi. The music is widely enjoyed in Tanzania and east Africa with most of the singers being organized into jazz bands. The Tanzania people value ‘ugali’ as one of their favorite dishes. Ugali is made from corn just like porridge only that it is usually made into a more solid and harder form. Tanzania is also home for many African writers known for their love for African literature and poetry. Among the prominent writers include Shaaban Robert, Julius Nyerere, Professor Julius Nyang’oro, Penina Mlama among others. Art is remarkable in Tanzania with its center stage being paintings which is usually done on canvas. The paintings are always colorful and beautiful artistic expressions of the environment and its contents. There is also the art of sculpturing from wood and stones to make images of animals and items depicting the variant culture of the Tanzanian ethnic composition.

Economy, minerals and resources

Tanzanian economy ails as a result of a slow paced growth. This is basically due to limitations in acquiring foreign currencies. Agriculture is the back bone of the country’s economy. However, there are still challenges as concerning acquisition and provision of credit facilities by the farmers. There is lack of appropriate equipment to match the modern farming methods in order to enhance commercialization in agriculture. However, Tanzania boasts of having areas rich in deposits of diamond and the country also has high production of tea, sisal, coffee and other cash crops. Moreover, Zanzibar is ranked third in the world production of cloves, thereby putting Tanzania’s economy on the rise. Tanzania has a cohort of wealthy merchants of mainly Arab and Asian origin who engage in businesses in the country. A majority of the people of Tanzania engage in subsistence farming. Most of Tanzania’s energy needs are sustained by charcoal and wood though the country produces electricity of up to 70% to sustain the increasing demand for energy. Offshore exploitation of gas at Songo Songo has been in the pipeline to salvage the situation of expensive oil importation.

Conclusion

Tanzania is a country whose history is characterized by rich diversity and interesting occurrences, it is a country that hooked itself off colonialism and has been on the verge of pulling itself to economical strengths. The diversity and mosaic nature of its people’s culture and tradition is exceptional. More still, it is an example of one of the African states with a large number of ethnic groupings yet has risen above ethnicity and tribal alienations. Its geographical composition crows up the already awesome country.

Reference

Gibbons, Ann (2007). The First Human: The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestor. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-7696-3.

Iliffe, John (1979) A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Kjekshus, Helge (1996). Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History. London: James Currey.

Koponen, Juhani (1988). People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of International Studies.

Monson, Jamie (2009) Africa's Freedom Railway: How a Chinese Development Project Changed Lives and Livelihoods in Tanzania Indiana University Press pp. 199 ISBN 0-253-35271-1 . Retrieved 2012-02-21

The East African slave trade. BBC World Service | The Story of Africa.

Waters, Tony (2007). The Persistence of Subsistence Agriculture: Life Beneath the Level of the Marketplace. Lanham: Lexington Books

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UK referendum on changing its voting system.

UK referendum on changing its voting system.

Abstract

After the general election of 2010, there was a Conservative Liberal Democratic Coalition Agreement that prompted the referendum on the alternative vote in the United Kingdom. This was a vote that was held nationwide on 5^th May 2011, on a Thursday which
was a date that coincided with the day of local elections in most of the areas about the method of choosing the MPs. The referendum was based on the people’s take as far as replacing the current simple plurality method with the method of ‘alternative vote’. However, the proposal of introducing the alternative vote was eventually rejected by the people. Notably, this was the second referendum that was held nationwide in the country following one in 1975 concerning EC. The difference was that the first was based on an issue that was post legislative whereas this second referendum gave the people the chance of voting on a domestic legislator in which the EC was not concerned. The referendum drew a large base of people who were allowed to make a decision on the matter in hand. These included all the Irish, British and the Commonwealth citizens who were above the age of eighteen and who lived in Britain. Those British citizens who lived outside Britain were also allowed to cast their vote. The members of the House of Lords, who under normal circumstances do not always vote, were also allowed to vote. The referendum attracted a 42.2 percent turnout, with 32 percent of the electorate voting for the change while 68 percent of the electorate voted against the alternative vote. In the counting districts, the yes votes above the 50 percent mark were achieved in just ten out of the 4400 counting districts. (Robinson, 200)

Introduction

The British referendum offered the electorate a chance to change the electoral system especially within the family of majoritarian. This move was to see a shift to the model of alternative vote from the current single member plurality. The factions that were in the ‘yes’ campaign included those organizations in the democracy sector as well as the small parties that were largely associates with the proportional representation advocacy in the United Kingdom. The turn of events can just be well explained by a relation to the social choice theory and in respect to the structures of political opportunity and the frame analysis that are interpersonally related. The Electoral Reform Society, Liberal Democrats and other factions who had in the earlier days criticized the introduction of the alternative vote changed their stance and were now campaigning in favor of the alternative vote. This behavior therefore led to the lack of direction and clarity in their objectives, which led to the ultimate failure. It was seen as a double standard on the part of the parties. (Felsenthal & Machover, 2012)

Details of the referendum

The referendum had to undergo various legal processes and legislative processes before the actual organization of the referendum, especially on the issues ranging from the legislation, the stands taken and the questions that were at hand. The shaping of the campaign process can best be related to the social choice theories. (Contiades, 2011)

A brief on the legislation

There was a provision for holding the referendum under the parliamentary voting system and constituencies act of 2011. Contained were also the changes that would have resulted from the adoption of the alternative vote system. The law had to be passed before the referendum took place, and Elizabeth II put the royal assent to the bill on the 16^th February the year 2011. The act made a provision for the referendum on the system of voting for the elections of the parliamentary seats. (Contiades, 202)

Question

The referendum was based on the question as to whether there should be a replacement of the First Past the Post model of elections to a new model of the Alternative Vote in the general elections. The referendum required a simple answer, yes or no and there was a simple majority requirement for either side to carry the day. The question was in English and in Wales; it appeared in the Welsh language. This was to ensure that the result of the referendum was an accurate one as given by the electorate. (LLC Books, 2010)

Campaign positions

The campaigns pitted the coalition partners on opposite sides, with the Conservatives opposing the alternative vote model while the Liberal Democrats were in support for it. Interestingly, the members who were aligned to the Conservative party ended up supporting the alternative vote in the referendum, going in contravention to the formal position of the Conservative Party. In the election of its leaders, the Conservative Party applies the successive ballots system which is referred to as another form of the alternative vote system, which they were supporting. In their elections, there is the process of eliminating the candidate with fewest votes in every round of elections.

There were debates that were elicited by the referendum, with the debate seeing an entry of the academic individuals. Many people and intellectuals contributed to the debate that preceded the referendum, with these engagements being done through social networking, blogs and through the mainstream networking. Several organizations added their voices to the debate, with two distinct factions rising; those in support of the fairer vote or alternative vote, and those who were against the introduction of the alternative vote. Celebrities like Billy Bragg threw their weight to the debate. Actors and actresses were also vocal in as far as the campaign for and against the bill were concerned. A number of bishops and churches were in support of the alternative vote with some of the bishops in England lie Rt. Rev Michael Langrish; Rev Colin Buchanan among others supported the yes campaign.

The social choice theory’s contribution to the debate

According to Flaschel(2012), the social choice theory bases on the fact that people are able to be hampered to reach a good decision that is best for them even when there seems to be no agreements that are enforceable. It is a more of a non cooperative game theory that is characterized by a decision theory in which agents agree are in an agreement to be bound by the outcome of any social process such as a voting process. The 2011 referendum in UK was an extension of this theory and the social theory played a vital role in the debate that preceded the referendum. The theory basically bases on the fact that people may have preferences that are asymmetric, with some who may have a preference for the status quo while others preferring the alternative, but at the end there is need for there to be an aggregation of everyone’s preference.

A hypothesis can be formed based on the debate that preceded the referendum. For instance, the collective choices as were observed are the alternatives that can be regarded as being the best for a sample perspective of an individual 1. A model can then be developed regarding hoe the preferences of the individuals were influenced hence prompting the individual to make a choice. These parameters that might have affected the choice of individual 1 may be his or her social and economic background, or the economic or income status. The models can be tested using various observables which include the parameter values and the choices that are realized. The positive political theory models are the premise that is basically applied as opposed to the preferences based on individuals. However, possessing the knowledge of how the preferences of the various individuals are determined by a number of parameters that are exogenous, there is still need for a theory that can explain how there is the difference and a conflict in the preferences of individuals being translated ultimately to choices on policies as was the case in the United Kingdom.  (Russell& Cohn, 2012)

Social choice algorithm

The collection of the ordinal preferences marks the starting point for the social choice algorithm, similar to what Arrow points to in the Arrow’s theorem. The situation that was presented to the British electorates in the referendum can be likened to a social choice problem, whose purpose is to give a map from the orders of preferences for every individual voter in the UK. This is used to produce n order of social preference through the use of some algorithm. This information can be used to do a variety of things. For instance, the initial ‘first past the post’ model that was used by the British in their electoral process can be used as a start to the ordinal preferences. Through this method, there is a count on the first place ranking for every option where the rank bearing the biggest count is counted first and there is a declaration on the indifferences to the rest of the options that are available. In the run up for the United Kingdom referendum, there were various advocacies for the representation proportions which have been conflicting and which have not been working in similar ways. The Conservatives supported the electoral system that involved the alternative vote which was also known as the Australian debate as it is a system that is used in the election of legislatures in Australia. (Barrington, 2012)

Debate based on social choice

There were debates that the alternative vote system was much more complex than the FPTP system of voting in which was done through voting for one’s second choice as a way of voting against the third choice. As Kelly(1988) observes, the strategic voting was seen as involving the knowledge of what the outcome was bound to be and being used as a way to change the vote that one wished to cast. It was argued that the system involved the knowledge of the actual percentages and using them to coordinate well with the others, ensuring that other people are made to switch. This mode was considered to be harder especially in cases where everyone else voted on a strategic basis and in disguise of the preferences that they truly have. This was seen as a theory of games which would complicate issues in the voting process by those who were against the alternative vote system. The debate preceding the referendum was characterized by arguments that strategic voting mattered less in the practice under the alternative vote mode. (Elster &  Hylland, 1989)

There were other debates that raged concerning the voting system as was proposed in the referendum. Some people had a view that any system of voting that selected single candidates with respect to the districts leaned towards promoting a state of two parties. The basis of this argument is on the law of Duverger which is a theorem and is based on a lot of assumptions. This elicits contention on whether the law is good or not hence illustrating the gap that exists between the conclusion and the analysis of the real issues on the ground. Much debate was based on the idea that two party systems was not good for the United Kingdom as it would eventually lead to the disenfranchisement of the people. This was seen to eventually lead to the people voting to the smaller parties. However, there are those who had a view that they are good as this would lead to the governing majority which would in turn create a lot of stability in the United Kingdom. Moreover, there were others like the Liberal Democrats who laid claims of creating stability through dramatic shifts in the entire way in which parties ruled as opposed to the ruling coalitions’ quantitative shifts. Based on the social choice theories, these claims cannot be fully backed especially with the solid analysis that is characterized by the strategic voting patterns. (Turpin, & Tomkins, 2011)

Social choice perspective

The fundamentals of the social choice theory are representative of the behaviorism and various psychologies of external control. The choice theory does not view individuals as having being shaped up by the punishments and rewards, but suggests the fact that people have some capacity of choice making and exercising the control of their lives. The debate preceding the referendum was overtly based on this argument. Those factions that were both campaigning for either side were basing their reasons on the social theory, where they were emphasizing the importance of choice and the fact that the electorate were presented by the chance to choose from two options. The intellectuals and politicians alike acknowledged the fact that the most important thing in the referendum was making choices by individuals which would eventually be taken as a collective decision by the electorate in the United Kingdom. (Loveland, 2012)Just like the choice theory indicates, the motivation of individuals is always gotten from what the individuals need or want at a particular moment. In this aspect, maintaining and building positive relationships especially with the people whom an individual shares with the same vision is vital. Those sharing the same dream and goal are usually motivated to work collaboratively. This was the case in the run up to the referendum. The debate was characterized by two sharply contrasting opinions, with one side being the ‘yes’ team and the other one against the alternative vote. These two factions each were arguing out their points and views differently. Throughout the discussions, those who shared the same view were alike and were connected in some manner to their policies. At that same time, all the leading campaigners were interested in appealing to the electorate that their views on the referendum were the correct ones and they were trying to influence the voting decisions by the electorate. (Riley, 1988)

The referendum was eventually to produce an analysis of the combined interests, welfares and preferences for the individuals in the electorate and term that as a collective decision of the people of the United Kingdom. This greatly shaped the way the debate on the referendum shaped up. The main interest of the parties which were campaigning was to influence individuals as it was clear that it was the individuals’ choices that were ultimately going to shape the collective results of the referendum process. (Bogdano, 1981)

Conclusion

The social choice theory is based on the analysis of the decisions that are made between the collections of the various alternatives that are made by collecting a given number of voters who bear different opinions. The choices from the entire groups should eventually reflect the individual voters’ desires to a possible extent. Throughout the debate before the referendum, individuals were expressing their reasons behind the choices of supporting the alternative vote model or rejecting it with a view of convincing various individuals throughout the electorate to vote their way in the referendum. The fact was that the side that was to gunner a simple majority was to carry the day. This meant that individuals were to make choice and the choices were to eventually determine the course of the referendum which ultimately would have to be considered as the collective choice of the electorate. (Rowley, 1993)

Work cited

Barrington, L. Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices. New York: Cengage Learning, 2012 

Bogdanor, V. The People and the Party System: The Referendum and Electoral Reform in British Politics. Great Britain: CUP Archive, 1981

Contiades, X. Comparative Constitutional Amendment. New York: Routledge, 2012

Contiades, X. Engineering Constitutional Change: A Comparative Perspective on Europe, Canada and the USA. New York: Routledge, 2012

Elster, J. & Hylland, A. Foundations of Social Choice Theory. New York: CUP Archive, 1989

Felsenthal, D. & Machover, M. Electoral Systems: Paradoxes, Assumptions, and Procedures. New York: Springer, 2012

Flaschel, P. Roads to Social Capitalism: Theory, Evidence, and Policy. UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2012

Kelly, J. Social choice theory: an introduction. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988 

LLC Books. Electoral Reform in the United Kingdom: Representation of the People Acts, Reform Act 1832, Representation of the People Act 1948. General Books LLC, 2010 – 9

Loveland, I. Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, and Human Rights: A Critical Introduction. UK: Oxford University Press, 2012

Riley, J. Liberal Utilitarianism: Social Choice Theory and J.S. Mill's Philosophy.  New York: CUP Archive, 1988

Robinson, C. Electoral Systems and Voting in the United Kingdom. Great Britain: Edinburgh University Press, 2010

Rowley, C. Social Choice Theory: The aggregation of preferences. Edward Elgar, 1993

Russell, J, & Cohn, R. Results of the United Kingdom Alternative Vote Referendum 2011. Tbilisi State University, 2012

Turpin, C. & Tomkins, A. British Government and the Constitution: Text and Materials. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011

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Is Evolution a Gradual Process?

Introduction

The change of biological populations through inherited characteristics and over successive generations is referred to as evolution. Through evolution, there is a rise of diversity in the various biological levels from species, various individual organisms and the molecules like protein and the DNA. Charles Darwin is known to the father of evolution. It is believed that the life in earth underwent evolution from a common ancestor over 3.8 billion years ago. Darwin was the first scientist to propone the evolution theory and he presented his argument on a natural selection basis. In his natural selection, Darwin observes that there are three main facts that characterize evolution. The first fact is that there are more off springs that are always produced and that can survive possibly. The second characteristic of this selection is that the individuals vary in terms of their traits and thus, leading to a difference in terms of survival rate and the rate of reproduction. The last observation of this natural selection is that the different traits in individuals are hereditary and can be passed from one individual to the other. Eventually, when the individuals die, there is a replacement by a progeny of other individuals that are more adapted to survive in the environment. There have been two major divergent views concerning the nature of evolution. These two views have given rise to two major sides, one insisting the evolution is a gradual process while the other disputing this fact and observing that evolution is occurs in a mode of punctuated equilibrium. (Muehlenbein, 2010).

Evolution as a gradual process

Charles Darwin, who is also the father and proponent of the evolution theory, believes that evolution was as a result of a slow and a gradual process. He had a belief that this process took a stepwise mode as opposed to being perfectly smooth. In the support for evolution being a gradual process, Darwin indicated that the species took time to evolve and accumulate small variations. This gradualism was further ascertained by the recording of fossils of the changes that are incrementally small within the various species. However, there was the inability to find a number of the intermediate forms, a development that Darwin and other scientists blamed on the gaps that exist in the records of fossils.

Those in support for gradualism indicate that evolution is a variation and a selection that happened in a more gradual manner. Evolution is termed to be gradual because it is often very hard to notice over a short period of given time. There are small variations that do take place in the organisms that eventually make them be better fit to be in the selected environment more than the initial parent organisms. Moreover, organisms with traits that are more helpful do survive in the environment and those with traits that are less helpful end up dying off. The population is bound to change over a long period of time, with this change being gradual. This school of thought believes that evolution is a gradual process that takes place slowly, constantly and consistently. The proponents of the model of gradual evolution believe that the species that are progenitor are the ones that do give rise to other new species yet there is no mechanisms that specially account that account for the numerous new species or genera that are of higher classification. Notably, there is just the accumulation of the various changes attributed to the alleles which are small and found in the pools of genes. (Hall, 2011)

Charles Lyell and James Hutton’s geological based findings indicated that gradualism basically builds to the fact that the mall changes that are built up over a long time are responsible for the large changes that are seen in individuals and in organisms. This perspective is based on the processes of geology and formed the base for Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. This is the idea that he adapted and therefore came to conclusion that evolution is a process that takes place over a long time span for the ultimate change to be observable. In support of this view by Darwin and other proponents of the fact that evolution is a gradual support is the records obtained from fossils. There are numerous fossils which prove these transitional features and ascertain the fact that there are structural adaptations that species develop in the process of transforming into species that are more adaptable and fit to survive in the naturally selected environment. Gradual evolution has further been supported by the geologic time scale which shows that there has been a change in the species since the time that life was incepted in the Earth. This change has taken place over millions of years.

Evolution is not a gradual process

There has been a school of thought that believes that it is a misconception to term evolution as to be a gradual process. This school of thought is based on the factor that evolution occurs in a punctuated mode. This is the mode whereby there is an increment in the changes more that the time that is seen in discrete intervals. This school of thought holds the view that there is most of the time when there is no virtual change on the organisms, thus, dismissing the fact that evolution takes place gradually. According to those who oppose the gradual evolution, they think that the changes seen as a result of evolution often occur in spurts.

According to this view, evolution occurs in punctuation where there are certain periods when the changes are very little or basically not there while in other periods the changes that occur are huge and more pronounced. These changes are believed to occur usually as a result of mutational processes in the genes. The mutations are believed to occur randomly and not inherited by the off springs from the previous generations but are often passed to the next generation. This argument holds that despite the danger of mutations, they do serve an important function in equilibrium that is punctuated and are vital in the survival of individuals in their environments. The mutations are always very important for the purposes of the survival of the individuals and there is usually a change over a short period of time, creating a difference between those who have these traits or mutations and the individuals who do not have them.

This argument based on evolution by punctuation is based on the fact that there are instances or periods when the changes in individuals occur rapidly over a given time. Later, these changes subside and this is followed by a long time of stability and inactivity in as much as changes are concerned. (Mayr, 199)

The argument against gradual evolution is majorly based on the manner in which the changes occur. The punctuated equilibrium bases its argument on the fact that mutations are responsible for the ultimate large changes that are experienced in organisms. However, those in this thought observe that mutation can be rapid and lead to a change in the organisms but can also be cause by sudden changes in the environment. This may force the species to expedite the changes in order to conform to the new environment which may be harsh in order for the species to survive.

Conclusion

Despite the two varying arguments, there is one thing that both schools of thoughts hold, this is the fact that evolution is a process that is taking place and that it occurs over a long period of time. The only point of dispute is on the mode of the change of structures in the species. Those holding on to gradual evolution insist on the gradual rise in formation of the new species from progenitor species while those for punctuated evolution insist on the fact that there are varied changes at various times. They base their argument on the fact that species experience changes at given periods at rapid speed while in other periods there is less or no change at all. Evolution is actually a gradual change as there cannot be variations in the structural developments of the different species. The changes are often effected at very slow pace and take several years to be observed. Further, this gradual change is always as a result of the off spring species developing traits that are more adapted to their new environment and that are more advanced than those of the parent species. 

References

Hall, B. (2011). Evolution: Principles and Processes. London: Jones & Bartlett Learning. 

Mayr, E. (1997). Evolution and the Diversity of Life: Selected Essays. New York: Harvard University Press, 1997

Muehlenbein, M. (2010). Human Evolutionary Biology. UK: Cambridge University Press.

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Is Evolution a Gradual Process?

   

Is Evolution a Gradual Process?

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Introduction

The change of biological populations through inherited characteristics and over successive generations is referred to as evolution. Through evolution, there is a rise of diversity in the various biological levels from species, various individual organisms and the molecules like protein and the DNA. Charles Darwin is known to the father of evolution. It is believed that the life in earth underwent evolution from a common ancestor over 3.8 billion years ago. Darwin was the first scientist to propone the evolution theory and he presented his argument on a natural selection basis. In his natural selection, Darwin observes that there are three main facts that characterize evolution. The first fact is that there are more off springs that are always produced and that can survive possibly. The second characteristic of this selection is that the individuals vary in terms of their traits and thus, leading to a difference in terms of survival rate and the rate of reproduction. The last observation of this natural selection is that the different traits in individuals are hereditary and can be passed from one individual to the other. Eventually, when the individuals die, there is a replacement by a progeny of other individuals that are more adapted to survive in the environment. There have been two major divergent views concerning the nature of evolution. These two views have given rise to two major sides, one insisting the evolution is a gradual process while the other disputing this fact and observing that evolution is occurs in a mode of punctuated equilibrium. (Muehlenbein, 2010).

Evolution as a gradual process

Charles Darwin, who is also the father and proponent of the evolution theory, believes that evolution was as a result of a slow and a gradual process. He had a belief that this process took a stepwise mode as opposed to being perfectly smooth. In the support for evolution being a gradual process, Darwin indicated that the species took time to evolve and accumulate small variations. This gradualism was further ascertained by the recording of fossils of the changes that are incrementally small within the various species. However, there was the inability to find a number of the intermediate forms, a development that Darwin and other scientists blamed on the gaps that exist in the records of fossils.

Those in support for gradualism indicate that evolution is a variation and a selection that happened in a more gradual manner. Evolution is termed to be gradual because it is often very hard to notice over a short period of given time. There are small variations that do take place in the organisms that eventually make them be better fit to be in the selected environment more than the initial parent organisms. Moreover, organisms with traits that are more helpful do survive in the environment and those with traits that are less helpful end up dying off. The population is bound to change over a long period of time, with this change being gradual. This school of thought believes that evolution is a gradual process that takes place slowly, constantly and consistently. The proponents of the model of gradual evolution believe that the species that are progenitor are the ones that do give rise to other new species yet there is no mechanisms that specially account that account for the numerous new species or genera that are of higher classification. Notably, there is just the accumulation of the various changes attributed to the alleles which are small and found in the pools of genes. (Hall, 2011)

Charles Lyell and James Hutton’s geological based findings indicated that gradualism basically builds to the fact that the mall changes that are built up over a long time are responsible for the large changes that are seen in individuals and in organisms. This perspective is based on the processes of geology and formed the base for Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. This is the idea that he adapted and therefore came to conclusion that evolution is a process that takes place over a long time span for the ultimate change to be observable. In support of this view by Darwin and other proponents of the fact that evolution is a gradual support is the records obtained from fossils. There are numerous fossils which prove these transitional features and ascertain the fact that there are structural adaptations that species develop in the process of transforming into species that are more adaptable and fit to survive in the naturally selected environment. Gradual evolution has further been supported by the geologic time scale which shows that there has been a change in the species since the time that life was incepted in the Earth. This change has taken place over millions of years.

Evolution is not a gradual process

There has been a school of thought that believes that it is a misconception to term evolution as to be a gradual process. This school of thought is based on the factor that evolution occurs in a punctuated mode. This is the mode whereby there is an increment in the changes more that the time that is seen in discrete intervals. This school of thought holds the view that there is most of the time when there is no virtual change on the organisms, thus, dismissing the fact that evolution takes place gradually. According to those who oppose the gradual evolution, they think that the changes seen as a result of evolution often occur in spurts.

According to this view, evolution occurs in punctuation where there are certain periods when the changes are very little or basically not there while in other periods the changes that occur are huge and more pronounced. These changes are believed to occur usually as a result of mutational processes in the genes. The mutations are believed to occur randomly and not inherited by the off springs from the previous generations but are often passed to the next generation. This argument holds that despite the danger of mutations, they do serve an important function in equilibrium that is punctuated and are vital in the survival of individuals in their environments. The mutations are always very important for the purposes of the survival of the individuals and there is usually a change over a short period of time, creating a difference between those who have these traits or mutations and the individuals who do not have them.

This argument based on evolution by punctuation is based on the fact that there are instances or periods when the changes in individuals occur rapidly over a given time. Later, these changes subside and this is followed by a long time of stability and inactivity in as much as changes are concerned. (Mayr, 199)

The argument against gradual evolution is majorly based on the manner in which the changes occur. The punctuated equilibrium bases its argument on the fact that mutations are responsible for the ultimate large changes that are experienced in organisms. However, those in this thought observe that mutation can be rapid and lead to a change in the organisms but can also be cause by sudden changes in the environment. This may force the species to expedite the changes in order to conform to the new environment which may be harsh in order for the species to survive.

Conclusion

Despite the two varying arguments, there is one thing that both schools of thoughts hold, this is the fact that evolution is a process that is taking place and that it occurs over a long period of time. The only point of dispute is on the mode of the change of structures in the species. Those holding on to gradual evolution insist on the gradual rise in formation of the new species from progenitor species while those for punctuated evolution insist on the fact that there are varied changes at various times. They base their argument on the fact that species experience changes at given periods at rapid speed while in other periods there is less or no change at all. Evolution is actually a gradual change as there cannot be variations in the structural developments of the different species. The changes are often effected at very slow pace and take several years to be observed. Further, this gradual change is always as a result of the off spring species developing traits that are more adapted to their new environment and that are more advanced than those of the parent species.

References

Hall, B. (2011). Evolution: Principles and Processes. London: Jones & Bartlett Learning. 

Mayr, E. (1997). Evolution and the Diversity of Life: Selected Essays. New York: Harvard University Press, 1997

Muehlenbein, M. (2010). Human Evolutionary Biology. UK: Cambridge University Press.

Read More